Privacy Tools Market

VPN Services: Comparative Analysis

Virtual private networks remain one of the foundational tools for protecting internet traffic. However, not all VPN providers are equally reliable. When choosing a service, it is essential to consider the logging policy, jurisdiction, encryption protocols used, and the availability of independent security audits. Below is a comparison of the most reputable services that have established themselves among information security professionals.

The WireGuard protocol has become the de facto standard for modern VPN solutions in recent years. Its advantages over OpenVPN include a significantly smaller codebase (approximately 4,000 lines of code versus hundreds of thousands), which substantially simplifies auditing. Furthermore, WireGuard uses modern cryptographic primitives: Curve25519 for key exchange, ChaCha20 for symmetric encryption, Poly1305 for authentication, and BLAKE2s for hashing.

Mullvad VPN deserves special attention thanks to its unique anonymous payment model. The service does not require an email address or personal data for registration — the user receives a random account number. Payment is accepted via cash by mail, cryptocurrency (Bitcoin, Monero), and traditional methods. In 2023, the Swedish police conducted a raid on Mullvad's office but were unable to seize any user data, as the company genuinely does not keep logs.

Source Code and Repositories

• WireGuard — GitHub Protocol
• Mullvad VPN App — GitHub Open Source
• ProtonVPN — GitHub Open Source

Additional Resources

• Privacy Guides — VPN recommendations
• Reddit r/VPN — VPN service discussions

Password Managers

Using unique, complex passwords for every service is a fundamental rule of digital hygiene. A password manager solves the problem of memorizing hundreds of credentials while providing cryptographic protection for the vault. When choosing a password manager, the key criteria are: open source code, the vault encryption algorithm, support for two-factor authentication, and the ability to store the database locally without being tied to the cloud.

KeePassXC is the gold standard among local password managers. The vault is encrypted using AES-256 or ChaCha20 with the Argon2d key derivation function, which ensures resistance to brute-force attacks even if the database file is leaked. The application supports browser integration through an extension, autofill, password generation, and storage of TOTP codes for two-factor authentication. A key advantage of KeePassXC is that the database is stored exclusively locally, and the user has full control over where and how it is synchronized.

Bitwarden represents an alternative approach with cloud synchronization. All server and client code is open source, allowing for independent verification. For advanced users, there is the option to deploy a personal Bitwarden server (or its lightweight implementation, Vaultwarden) on home hardware, gaining full control over data while retaining the convenience of cross-device synchronization.

• KeePassXC — GitHub Open Source
• Bitwarden — GitHub Open Source
• Vaultwarden — GitHub Self-hosted

Encryption Tools

Data encryption at the file system level and within individual containers provides protection even in the event of an attacker gaining physical access to the device. Modern encryption tools allow the creation of encrypted volumes with plausible deniability support — the ability to conceal the very existence of encrypted data.

VeraCrypt is the successor to the legendary TrueCrypt and currently represents the most mature solution for disk encryption and creating encrypted containers. The application supports cascaded encryption (for example, AES-Twofish-Serpent), which provides protection even if a vulnerability is discovered in one of the algorithms. The hidden volumes feature allows creating a second encrypted partition inside the main one, which is impossible to detect without knowing the corresponding password.

For file system-level encryption on Linux, LUKS (Linux Unified Key Setup) is recommended, as it is integrated into the operating system kernel. Cryptomator provides transparent file encryption for cloud storage — each file is encrypted individually, allowing the use of Dropbox, Google Drive, or other services without exposing plaintext data to them.

GnuPG (GPG) remains an indispensable tool for email encryption and file signing. The OpenPGP standard provides asymmetric encryption using RSA, EdDSA, or ECC key pairs. For everyday use, a combination of GnuPG with the Thunderbird email client is recommended, which has had built-in OpenPGP support since version 78.

• VeraCrypt — GitHub Open Source
• Cryptomator — GitHub Open Source
• GnuPG — GitHub Open Source

Hardware Security Keys

Hardware security keys are physical devices for two-factor authentication and cryptographic operations. Unlike software-based TOTP generators, hardware keys are resistant to phishing, code interception, and mobile device compromise. The FIDO2/WebAuthn protocol, supported by modern keys, eliminates the possibility of phishing attacks at a technical level — the key binds to a specific domain and will not release credentials to a counterfeit website.

YubiKey by Yubico is the most widely used hardware key on the market. The YubiKey 5 series devices support multiple protocols: FIDO2/WebAuthn, FIDO U2F, smart card (PIV), OpenPGP, and OTP. The key can be used for authentication on web services, signing Git commits, storing SSH keys, and GPG subkeys. The main drawback of YubiKey is its closed-source firmware, which raises justified concerns among advocates of full transparency.

Nitrokey offers an alternative with fully open-source firmware and hardware design. The Nitrokey 3 model supports FIDO2, OTP, and a secure storage function. For users who consider the verifiability of every component critically important, Nitrokey is the preferred choice, despite a somewhat smaller ecosystem compared to YubiKey.

• Nitrokey — GitHub Open Hardware
• Trussed (Nitrokey 3 firmware) — GitHub Open Source
• Reddit r/yubikey — hardware key discussions

Secure Email Services

Standard email is transmitted in plaintext and can be intercepted at any intermediate node. Secure email services solve this problem by applying end-to-end encryption, under which even the provider itself has no technical ability to read the contents of messages. When choosing secure email, it is important to consider the provider's jurisdiction, the threat model, and the supported encryption standards.

ProtonMail, founded in 2014 by CERN researchers, is the largest encrypted email provider. The service is registered in Switzerland, which ensures protection under strict privacy laws. Between ProtonMail users, automatic end-to-end encryption is applied. For external recipients, a feature for sending encrypted messages protected by a password is available. All ProtonMail client applications are open source and have undergone independent audits.

Tutanota (now Tuta) offers similar functionality with its own encryption implementation that is not based on PGP. The service is registered in Germany and encrypts not only the body of the email but also the subject line, as well as contacts and calendar. Tuta uses AES-256 symmetric encryption and RSA-2048 asymmetric encryption (with plans to transition to post-quantum algorithms).

• Reddit r/ProtonMail — user community
• Privacy Guides — email recommendations

Secure Messengers

Choosing a messenger with robust end-to-end encryption is one of the key decisions in building a personal security system. The Signal Protocol, developed by Moxie Marlinspike, has become the gold standard for secure messaging and is used not only in the application of the same name but also in WhatsApp, as well as partially in Google Messages and Facebook Messenger.

Signal provides end-to-end encryption for all messages, calls, video calls, and transferred files. The application minimizes the volume of metadata — the server does not store contact lists, message history, or group information. The Sealed Sender technology hides even the sender of a message from the server. Signal is a non-profit project funded through the Signal Foundation, which eliminates any conflict of interest related to monetizing user data.

For those who require an even higher level of anonymity, there is the Briar messenger. It operates through the Tor network, Wi-Fi, or Bluetooth, does not require a phone number for registration, and can function in a fully decentralized manner without any servers. In extreme conditions, Briar allows exchanging messages through a mesh network between devices in close proximity.

Session represents another interesting option, built on the decentralized Oxen network. The messenger does not require a phone number, uses onion routing to conceal participants' IP addresses, and stores messages in a distributed network of nodes called Service Nodes.

• Signal — GitHub Open Source
• Briar — GitHub Open Source
• Session — GitHub Open Source
• Reddit r/signal — Signal community
• Reddit r/privacy — privacy discussions

Privacy-Focused Browsers

The web browser is the primary source of information leaks about the user. Browser fingerprinting, cookies, WebRTC leaks, trackers, and analytics scripts — all of these allow identifying and tracking users even without the use of cookie files. Choosing the right browser and configuring it correctly is an essential element of privacy protection.

Tor Browser remains the most effective tool for anonymous web browsing. The browser is built on Firefox ESR and routes all traffic through the Tor network, which consists of three intermediate nodes. A key feature of Tor Browser is browser fingerprint unification: all users appear identical to web servers, making tracking through fingerprinting virtually impossible. The browser automatically blocks JavaScript on unfamiliar sites (via NoScript), prevents WebRTC leaks, and isolates cookies for each domain.

For everyday use, when full anonymization through Tor is not required, Firefox with hardened privacy settings or its specialized fork LibreWolf is recommended. LibreWolf ships with preconfigured settings that block Mozilla telemetry, enable enhanced tracking protection, and disable potentially dangerous features. The Brave browser, built on Chromium, also offers built-in tracker and ad blocking, although its monetization model through its own advertising network sparks debate within the community.

Mullvad Browser — a joint project of Mullvad VPN and the Tor Project — represents the concept of "Tor Browser without Tor." The browser uses the same unified fingerprint as Tor Browser but operates through a regular internet connection (or VPN). This solution is optimal for users who value protection against fingerprinting but do not require routing through the Tor network.

• Tor Browser — GitLab Open Source
• LibreWolf — Codeberg Open Source
• Arkenfox user.js — hardened Firefox configuration Config

Secure File Storage

Cloud storage services such as Google Drive or Dropbox store user files in plaintext (or with encryption whose key belongs to the provider). This means that file contents are accessible to the company itself and can also be handed over upon request by law enforcement agencies. For storing confidential information, it is necessary to use solutions with client-side encryption, where the encryption keys never leave the user's device.

Tresorit is a commercial solution under Swiss jurisdiction, offering end-to-end encryption for cloud storage. The service has undergone an independent security audit and is compatible with major operating systems. Nextcloud, on the other hand, allows deploying your own cloud storage on a personal server or a rented VPS, providing full control over data. Combined with the End-to-End Encryption module, Nextcloud provides functionality comparable to commercial solutions.

For synchronizing files between devices without the involvement of any server, Syncthing is the ideal solution. This application establishes a direct encrypted connection between the user's devices, exchanging data through the Block Exchange Protocol. All transmitted data is encrypted using TLS, and device discovery can be configured either through a global discovery server or exclusively within the local network.

• Nextcloud — GitHub Open Source
• Syncthing — GitHub Open Source

Recommendations for Building Comprehensive Protection

No single tool can provide absolute security on its own. Effective protection is built on the principle of defense in depth, where each layer compensates for potential weaknesses of the others. The minimum recommended set of tools for everyday use includes the following components:

It is important to remember that the weakest link in any security system remains the human factor. Regular software updates, separation of digital identities, caution when clicking on links, and maintaining operational discipline — all of this is no less important than choosing specific tools. Study your threat model, determine your priorities, and build your protection in accordance with real risks rather than assumed ones.

Useful Resources for Further Learning

• Privacy Guides — comprehensive privacy reference
• EFF Surveillance Self-Defense — self-defense guide
• Reddit r/PrivacyGuides — privacy community
• Reddit r/netsec — network security